In July of 1861, the War Between the States had just barely begun. In February of that year, the Confederate States of America believing they had a right to secede from the United States of America, named a president (Jefferson Davis) and formed their own constitution. The Confederate Army began to seize control of the military forts in the states of the Confederacy. Fort Sumter in South Carolina, however, had to be taken by force, and after 34 hours of bloodless battle the fort was surrendered to the South. It became obvious to the residents of the Northern States that only a war could keep the nation together. Under heavy public pressure President Lincoln declared an insurrection and called for volunteers to join the military.
On July 16, 1861 an unprepared Union militia of 30,000 men marched from Washington to Manassas, Virginia to attack the Confederate troops protecting the railroad junction there. Defeating the Confederates at this location would open the way for Union soldiers to descend on Richmond, the capitol of the Confederate States. The Confederate spy network warned General Beauregard of the upcoming attack. General Beauregard readied his 22,000 troops and General Joseph Johnston joined him with 9,000 troops. The attack was not a well kept secret. Many residents of Washington followed the Union army to watch the defeat of the South.
Both sides believed the war would be one battle long with little bloodshed. The battle of Manassas was fought on July 21, 1861. During the early morning hours the Union army charged across Bull Run creek. Fighting raged throughout the day and Confederate soldiers were forced back up Henry Hill. Confederate General Thomas J. Jackson arrived with reinforcements. His troops broke the Union right flank and held firm as if they were a stone wall, earning Jackson the nickname which he carried through life and infamy; “General Stonewall Jackson”. The Union quickly retreated back to Washington, however the Confederate soldiers were too tired and unorganized to pursue and capitalize on their gain. Even so the Confederate Army was victorious for a second time in this young war.
Though both sides entered the battle feeling the war would be short lived, they finished the battle knowing otherwise. The United States Army suffered 2,950 casualties in deaths, injuries and prisoners of war. The Confederate States Army suffered 1,750 casualties.
During much of the fighting in the Vietnam War, chemical agents were used by the United States to defoliate the landscape. Although many different chemical agents were used, the most infamous was most decidedly “Agent Orange,” one of the “Rainbow Herbicides.”
Project AGILE, Subproject VI investigated in the 1960s the use of herbicides in warfare. Corporations like DOW Chemicals and Monsanto were given the task of developing the herbicides for defoliation purposes. The chemicals developed during this time were referred to as the “Rainbow Herbicides.”
The “Rainbow Herbicides” were a collection of six formulas put into production by the United States during the Vietnam War. Agent Pink, Green, Purple, Blue, White and Orange were all especially potent defoliants designed to strip leafy cover that the guerrilla fighters depended on to remain hidden. While not especially harmful, the defoliants were contaminated with the by-product polychlorinated dibenzodioxins or dioxin. Dioxin is produced as a by-product with the active chemicals in “Agent Orange” that, in contrast, are relatively safe to humans but deadly to plants. Dioxin is extremely harmful and dangerous to humans and is listed as a carcinigen. It is widely considered a very serious pollutant and the active component in “Agent Orange’s” infamous toxicity.
The chemicals, such as “Agent Orange” were used most infamously in Vietnam as a part of “Operation Ranch Hand.” Millions of people were effected and are being effected today. It is estimated that over a half of a million Vietnamese children have been born with birth defects that can be directly attributed to dioxin poisoning, dioxin being a prime contaminant of “Agent Orange.”
Several lawsuits have been filed against DOW and Monsanto for their role in the production of the various chemical defoliants. Several lawsuits were settled out of court without an admission of liability on the corporations part. Most notably, in 1984, the represented companies paid $180 million into a fund for disabled veterans that were impacted by the use of “Agent Orange.”
The mistakes made in Vietnam reflect the important nature of the roles of chemicals in warfare and civilian life alike. Care must be taken to ensure that the effects resulted are always the same as effects intended.
April 6 and 7 1862 reminded all Americans, United States and Confederate States citizens alike, of the horrors of war. Forced to evacuate Nashville, Tennessee, General Albert S. Johnston re-grouped his Confederate Army in Corinth, Mississippi. Keeping Corinth under Confederate control was vital. Corinth was a strategic point on the Memphis-Charleston and Mobile-Ohio railroad lines. These railroads provided essential produce and communication from the West to Southern forces in the East.
Simultaneously, having taken Fort Henry on the Tennessee River in February, General Ulysses S. Grant, under orders from Major General Henry W. Halleck, planned to attack the Memphis-Charleston railroad. However, General Grant was ordered not to attack until he was united with General Don Carlos Buell and his troops. General Grant set up camp at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee just 22 miles northeast of Corinth. His main camps were set at around a log church known as Shiloh Meeting House.
Aware of General Grant’s intentions and his orders to wait for General Buell, General Johnston prepared a surprise attack. General Johnston began organizing his troops on April 3, 1862 and by April 5 had gathered 44,000 men. On the morning of April 6 the Confederate troops surprised the Union charging from the woods. The Union soldiers rallied and attempted a strong defense; however the Confederate soldiers successfully pushed back the Union Soldiers and took the Shiloh Hill. . At midday General Johnston was fatally wounded and General Beauregard assumed command. The battle ended for the night with the Confederate Army claiming victory.
Overnight Buell’s army joined Grant’s. With renewed strength, the Union Army, now numbering 54,500 men, attacked the Confederate Army at dawn on April 7. Beauregard’s troops, now numbering only 43,000, could not hold Shiloh Hill and withdrew back to Corinth. Grant and Buell’s troops weak from battle did not pursue the Confederate Army to Corinth Mississippi.
Though both armies claimed victory, the overall battle was a staggering loss to the Confederacy. Casualties on both sides were drastic. The combined losses including dead, wounded and missing numbered 23,746. This number was greater than all casualties combined in previous wars, a horrible blow to the country. Both the Union Army and the Confederate Army were immobile for three weeks recovering from this loss.
The original Shiloh Church survived this battle but was destroyed in a later battle. Shiloh church remains an active congregation today.